Abstract
Educators face challenges in identifying and implementing pedagogies that affirm students’ cultural identities, foster inclusivity, and support multiple ways of knowing. This paper explores the potential of Two-Eyed Seeing (TES), a framework introduced by Mi’kmaw Elder Albert Marshall that braids Indigenous and Western knowledge systems (Hatcher et al., 2009), as a respectful and holistic pedagogical approach that moves beyond traditional cross-cultural code switching. While code switching often requires students to shift behaviors or language to adapt to dominant cultural norms, TES offers a model that values both knowledge systems equally without requiring one to subsume the other. Through a comparative analysis of TES and code switching, and case studies in both early childhood and elementary settings, we investigate how TES promotes student engagement, identity development, and inclusive classroom environments. Findings suggest that TES supports students, especially those from non-dominant cultures, by affirming their worldviews, reducing the need for adaptive cultural shifts, and fostering deeper relationships with land, community, and curriculum. We also discuss implications for educators, curriculum developers, and policymakers, highlighting the growing need for systemic educational support and ethical community partnerships. Limitations and areas for further research are identified, including the adaptation of TES in urban, multicultural contexts and the development of culturally responsive assessment models.
References
Barab, S., & Squire, K. (2004). Design-based research: Putting a stake in the ground. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327809jls1301_1
Bartlett, C., Marshall, M., & Marshall, A. (2012). Two-eyed seeing and other lessons learned within a co-learning journey of bringing together indigenous and mainstream knowledges and ways of knowing. Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences, 2(4), 331–340. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13412-012-0086-8
Cirkony, C., Kenny, J., & Zandvliet, D. (2023). A two-eyed seeing teaching and learning framework for science education. Canadian Journal of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education, 23(2), 340–364. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42330-023-00276-z
Dolmont, M. (2021). Two-eyed seeing to support Indigenous education [Doctoral dissertation, Western University]. Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Repository. https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/oip/189
Gardner-Vandy, K., Utley, J., Just, A., Hathcock, S., & Stansberry, S. (2025). A systematic mapping literature review on two-eyed seeing in P-20 education. Review of Educational Research. Advance online publication.
Gutierrez-Clellen, V. (1999). Language choice in intervention with bilingual children. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 8(4), 291–302. https://doi.org/10.1044/1058-0360.0804.291
Hatcher, A. (2012). Building cultural bridges with Aboriginal learners and their 'classmates' for transformative environmental education. Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences, 2(4), 346–356.
Hatcher, A., Bartlett, C., Marshall, M., & Marshall, A. (2009). Two-eyed seeing: A cross-cultural science journey. Green Teacher, 28, 3–6.
Institute for Integrative Science & Health. (2022). Two-eyed seeing. http://www.integrativescience.ca/Principles/TwoEyedSeeing/
Iwama, M., Marshall, M., Marshall, A., & Bartlett, C. (2009). Two-eyed seeing and the language of healing in community-based research. Canadian Journal of Native Education, 32, 3–23.
Just, A., Hathcock, S., & Gardner-Vandy, K. (2025). Using cultural stories to explore the position of the Sun in the sky: The journey of Tυshka and Walo. Science Scope, 48, 59–67. https://doi.org/10.1080/08872376.2025.2565562
Lomawaima, K. T. (1996). Estelle Reel, superintendent of Indian schools, 1898-1910: Politics, curriculum, and land. Journal of American Indian Education, 5–31.
McCoy, T., Ironstack, G., Baldwin, D., Strack, A. J., & Olm, W. (2011). Ašiihkiwi neehi kiišikwi myaamionki = Earth and sky: The place of the myaamiaki. Miami Tribe of Oklahoma.
McDowell, S. B., Gardner-Vandy, K., Just, A., Hathcock, S. J., Panwar, K., & Utley, J. (2025). Inquiry & investigation: Exploring ecosystems through Choctaw storytelling and science. American Biology Teacher.
Michie, M., Hogue, M., & Rioux, J. (2018). The application of both-ways and two-eyed seeing pedagogy: Reflections on engaging and teaching science to post-secondary Indigenous students. Research in Science Education, 48, 1205–1220. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-018-9775-y
Molinsky, A. (2007). Cross-cultural code-switching: The psychological challenges of adapting behavior in foreign cultural interactions. Academy of Management Review, 32(2), 622–640. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.2007.24351878
Onwu, G. O., & Mufundirwa, C. (2020). A two-eyed seeing context-based approach for incorporating indigenous knowledge into school science teaching. African Journal of Research in Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 24(2), 229–240. https://doi.org/10.1080/18117295.2020.1816700
Panwar, K., Gardner-Vandy, K., Utley, J., Hathcock, S., Just, A., & McDowell, S. (2025). Uncovering the iterative processes in designing culturally relevant STEM curricula. In Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference (pp. 2070–2074). Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE).
Panwar, K., Gardner-Vandy, K., Utley, J., Hathcock, S., McDowell, S., & Just, A. (2024). Designing a virtual exploration of culturally relevant Earth-Sky STEM curricula: Insights from students' experiences in a summer camp. In Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference (pp. 1185–1188). Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education (AACE).
Reid, A. J., Eckert, L. E., Lane, F., Young, N., Hinch, S. G., Darimont, C. T., Cooke, S. J., Ban, N. C., & Marshall, A. (2021). "Two-eyed seeing": An Indigenous framework to transform fisheries research and management. Fish and Fisheries, 22(2), 243–261. https://doi.org/10.1111/faf.12516
Reyhner, J., & Eder, J. (2017). American Indian education: A history (2nd ed.). University of Oklahoma Press.
Sparks, S. D. (2021, November 23). Catching up Native American students in science. Education Week. https://www.edweek.org/teaching-learning/catching-up-native-american-students-in-science/2021/11
Stansberry, S. L., McDowell, S. B., Ivey, T. A., Hathcock, S. J., Utley, J., Gardner-Vandy, K., & Just, A. (2023). A systematic mapping study of place- and land-based learning with indigenous populations in K-12 STEM education. Journal of Formative Design in Learning, 7, 158–170. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s41686-023-00079-3
Whorrall, K., Lam, J. X., & Birdsong, A. (2022). Embodied land acknowledgment: Connecting children to place through Indigenous wisdom and playful inquiry. Voices of Practitioners, 17(1), 2–5. https://www.naeyc.org/resources/pubs/vop/dec2022/embodied-land-acknowledgment
Wright, A. L., Gabel, C., Ballantyne, M., Jack, S. M., & Wahoush, O. (2019). Using two-eyed seeing in research with Indigenous people: An integrative review. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 18, Article 1609406919869695. https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406919869695
Zakaria, N., & Ab Rahman Muton, N. (2022). Cultural code-switching in high context global virtual team members: A qualitative study. International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 22(3), 487–515. https://doi.org/10.1177/1470595822113725
Zavacky, S. (2016). Contemporary American Indian history: Code switching: From Indian boarding schools to urban classrooms. Yale National Initiative.
Zimanyi, L., & Marshall, A. D. (2023, July 20). How two-eyed seeing, 'Etuaptmumk,' is changing outdoor play in early childhood education. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/how-two-eyed-seeing-etuaptmumk-is-changing-outdoor-play-in-early-childhood-education-202313
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Copyright (c) 2025 Sarah McDowell, Kirtika Panwar, Angela Just